Welcome to the MHS Writing Center | home
Essay Help
Here are some guidelines for writing different types of papers. You will find guidelines for writing the Literary Analysis, the Compare and Contrast Essay, the Personal Narrative, the Persuasive Essay, Lab Reports, and Research Papers. Let's start with one of the most important English assignments facing high school students:The Literary Analysis!
I. Essay Skills: The Literary Analysis
1. The Introduction
One clear method of starting the paper is to move from a general position about your topic to a more specific thesis. In other words, your introduction should narrow its focus as the paragraph unfolds. This is known as The Triangle Method (think of an upside down triangle -- the broad base shrinks to a specific point). Note: The most important part of an introduction is the...
THESIS STATEMENT: Without a solid thesis statement, your essay will lack focus. The thesis is a sentence that is usually located near the end of the first paragraph. It combines a topic with an opinion that you will prove in the essay (topic + opinion = thesis). Remember, the goal of a literary analysis is to prove an idea about a literary work that does not have an obvious answer. You do not simply want to summarize the plot of a text.
ex. In Joseph Heller's novel, Catch-22, (topic) a distorted and circular plotline is woven to help mirror the chaotic and distorted realities of warfare. (an opinion that needs to be proven)
2. Body Paragraphs
Throughout the course of your essay, three objectives should be achieved in every paragraph:
a) Introduce the main topic of the paragraph by rendering a topic sentence.
b) Justify your opinion with textual reference (specific quotations or details from the text).
c) Analyze the significance of your quotations and how they relate to your point.
Here is a very simple formula for each paragraph: State the main idea of each paragraph, use quotations and textual examples to substantiate your idea, then go deeper into the analysis by commenting on the meaning of your chosen quotations (this is the most important part, as this is where the analysis of the literary analysis comes into play).
3. Points of Style:
a) Keep all verbs relating to the events of the story in the present tense.
b) Stay in the third person; refrain from using the first or second person. (I, me, we, my, you, etc).
c) Avoid casual expressions; use a formal tone when writing a literary analysis.
d) Use transition and linking words (e.g. finally, furthermore, next, whereas, conversely, nevertheless, evidently, therefore, thus, hence, consequently, etc.) to enhance the logical progression and flow of your prose.
4. Quotation Integration:
There are several ways to integrate quotations. For instance, you may use a segment of a quotation to finish a point you are making in your own prose:
Ex.) Tobias Wolff often lied to Dwight to keep him from "learning too much about my life" (65).
You can also use a quotation to illustate a larger point:
Ex.) Tobias Wolff wanted to be a rugged explorer. This is evident when he states, "I wanted people to call me Jack, after Jack London, a hero of mine who had a lot of adventures" (99).
II. Compare and Contrast Essays
There are two methods you may use when writing body paragraphs for a compare & contrast essay. Sometimes a paragraph will focus on similarities, sometimes on the differences. The first form is comparison by the...
Block Method: A block of ideas is presented about one item, then another block of ideas about the second item. This method is very effective for paragraphs that contrast.
Example:
Most of us are familiar with American football, its rectangular field with goal posts at either end, its well padded players, its lengthy huddles and set ups for plays. Players carry and pass the ball and occasionally kick it. The game is slightly militaristic, slightly ritualistic, and full of pauses. Australian football, however, seems pure chaos to a first time viewer from the States. The field is round, there are three goalposts. The players crash into one another constantly, although they wear no helmets and seem to be dressed more for a track meet than a contact sport. They kick almost as often as soccer players, and the action, mad as it seems, is almost non-stop.
Point-by-Point Method: A similarity or difference between the items is pointed out, then another and another. This method is effective in showing how content either compares or contrasts.
Example:
If you're thinking of getting a dog, you may be wondering whether to buy a pedigreed one or a "mixed breed," more often referred to as a "mutt." Pedigreed dogs may cost anywhere from fifty dollars to several thousand, depending on breed and bloodlines. Mutts are often free or cost only a few dollars. Pedigreed dogs may be bred for duty or for beauty. Border collies, for instance, are excellent working dogs, and pomeranians are extremely ornamental. Mutts may be ugly or handsome, useless or posess many talents, depending on the individual. With a pedigreed dog you may be more certain of what you are getting, but keep in mind that some of these dogs are over- bred, resulting in physical weakness and poor tempers. The mutt is generally a sturdier dog and is less likely to be nervous or tempermental.
The compare and contrast essay has a basic formula: A (item 1) + B (item 2) = C-component. This "C-component," as it is called in the Writing Center, is the larger premise or theme behind your comparison. Generally, the C-component is implicit; however, it is a good idea to hammer it home in the conclusion.
III. Personal Narrative
The personal narrative is just what it sounds like - the author "narrates" a personal experience. This experience can be a life-changing one (overcoming a serious illness;dealing with divorce), or one that is more casual in nature. The main requirement is that a theme frames the essay. The audience needs to know why you are sharing such an experience.
The Epiphany Moment
The epiphany moment is the moment in an essay when the author realizes a truth about the experience narrated in the essay. This generally comes at the end of the essay, and it is a good way to summarize the theme of the essay. However, avoid cliches! Keep in mind that a personal narrative does not require an epiphany moment, though it often lends itself to one.
The Thematic Arc
Think of the thematic arc as the "reason" for reading the essay. It can be a lesson or realization, or it may simply call attention to an issue. It does not have to be directly stated, but must be clearly implied. Try to hint at such a theme throughout the essay, using specific details to cement your theme.
The Body
The key to an engaging personal narrative is specific detail. Try to put the reader in the moment. Strong verbs work best for detailing engaging specific action.
IV. The Persuasive Essay
The purpose of a persuasive essay is to convince the reader of a specific opinion. Arguments should appeal to both the logical and the empathetic side of readers. Statements should be supported by factual data wherever possible.
Here is a list of arguments NOT to use when writing your paper:
1. The Ad Hominem argument: This argument counters a contradicting opinion by attacking the person who holds the opinion. For example, "Carrots are not good for you because Phillip the Carrot Farmer is not a good father." While the personal attack may be true, the two points are unrelated to each other.
2. The Ad Populum argument: This argument appeals to the prejudice of a large group of people. Instead of arguing the point in question, a general statement is made. For example, "Anyone who believes carrots are good for you is against America." People will be stirred up by this comment, but once again the two statements have nothing to do with each other.
3. General Statements: Writers will be tempted to make broad statements like, "Every single day..." and "People everywhere believe..." Stop and think about these statements. "People everywhere" implies every person in every location. There is probably no opinion that everybody agrees on, and if they do, why the need for argument? Watch out for these statements, as they weaken a point.
4. Appealing to an unqualified authority: This argument makes use of quotations from people who have no expertise in the subject area.
5. Begging the question: This assumes a statement is true without proving it, and then basing your argument on this statement. For example, "Carrots give you leprosy. People must stop eating carrots before the epidemic begins." If carrots do indeed transmit skin disease, the argument for outlawing them is a good one. However, the statement itself was never proven.
6. Either-or Logic: This argument offers two extremes. For example, "You can set fire to the carrot crops and arrest the growers immediately, or you can all die of leprosy." Neither of these options are practical, and the argument comes across as a little ridiculous. Recognize the gray area in every debate or the argument will be weakened.
7. Faulty analogy: A faulty analogy compares two unlike subjects or situations. For example, "Putting carrots in your daughter's beef stew is like throwing her off the Empire State Building." These two situations are not even remotely similar. No good.
Now that we have gone over what not to do, let's get positive. Here are a few ideas that will make your arguments strong and thorough.
1. The Concession Strategy: This technique refers to recognizing that a counter argument may have some validity (thus, conceding a point), and then discrediting the argument. For example, "Carrots do have some health benefits. They are very good for your eyes. However, what use are good eyes when the carrots you consume are filled with harmful pesticides that can cause even more serious health risks." This strategy functions on two levels. First, the counter-argument is disproved and loses strength, and your own argument is strengthened (your voice appears more objective). Concessions are essential to a well-rounded argument.
2. The appeal: The appeal is placed at the end of the essay. You have finished persuading the reader of your opinion, and the appeal highlights what the reader should do with this information (Write to the President? Boycott a product?). You are appealing to the reader to act upon your already proven point.
V. Lab Reports
For those gifted with scientific minds, there is still a way we can help you! And you will get to write! Lab reports can be authored in many styles; however, here are a few basic elements that each lab report should include:
-Title:
Every lab is in need of a title. Usually, the teacher will tell you the name of the lab. If he/she doesn't, just describe what you accomplished in the lab. For example, if you added lots of chemicals to different test tubes of water and observed the results, you could title the lab: "Effects of Chemicals on Water".
-Abstract/Purpose:
Abstract is a fancy name for the purpose of the lab. Why did you have to do this lab? Please do not write a response like, "Because Mr. Smith told us to do it." That is not a reason. What did you learn from the lab? What did it demonstrate? The purpose is always for you to learn, so what did you gain from the experience?
-Methods/Equipment:
This is basically a list. You first list every item you used (from the tap water to the bunson burner). Next, you need to list the steps you performed (this would be a numbered list) in the order that you did them. For example:
1. We measured out 10mL of water.
2. We poured 5mL into each of the two labeled test tubes.
3. We measured out .5g of chemical X.
4. We added .5g of chemical X to test tube one.
-Data/Results/Calculations:
Data tables make information easier to read. It's very simple to add one to a lab report, as there is an "Insert table" icon on the toolbar of most word processing programs. You have to organize your data so that it makes sense. Sometimes this requires using more than one data table. Often, observations are a required element of the results. Simply describe exactly what you saw happen in the lab, and use specific language.
-Discussion/Questions:
One word answers to discussion questions are a poor excuse for doing the work. You must use full sentences and correct grammar. This is the part where you really need to work. Here is where you prove to the teacher that you understand the lesson. You must talk about what happened in your lab and what meaning this could possibly have about the subject that you are studying.
-Conclusion:
This is the section where you apply what you have drawn from the lab to the subject you are studying. Talk about different parts of the subject and what meaning the lab applies to all of it. Go beyond proving that you've learned something and prove that you understand it, too.
VI. Research Papers
A) What is a Research Paper (and why must we write them?)?
According to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Paper (fourth edition), "The sorts of activities that constitute a research paper--identifying, locating, assessing, and assimilating others' research and then developing and expressing your own ideas clearly and persuasively--are at the center of the educational experience"(2).
The Research Paper is most closely related to the Literary Analysis Paper. Both use formal language; both have a thoughtful, serious thesis statement; and both support their theses' with quotations. However, a Literary Analysis Paper only uses quotations from the primary piece of literature (a primary source), while a Research Paper references other works, as well (secondary sources). Of course, an English class is not the only place where a student would write a research paper. Social studies courses - and even the hard sciences -- often utilize research papers as part of the curriculum.
B) The Catch
Be careful: Whenever you rely on secondary sources you must avoid any form of plagiarism! If you use another writer's ideas, words, or even graphics and do not give credit to that writer then you are plagiarizing. Here are some strategies to avoid becoming a plagiarist:
1. Paraphrasing - paraphrasing is simply restating what you have read from a source by converting the language into your own words. You do not want to use phrases or word combinations that are exactly like those in the original source. Furthermore, you still have to cite where you found your information.
2. Attributing Quotations - By simply attributing ideas or sentences to an actual writer you will be giving that author credit for his/her work.:
Quotation Integration Rules
Short Quotations:
If a quotation is a short phrase, the writer should work the piece into the sentence and wrap quotation marks around it.
Example- Mrs. Sabra teaches her "totally terrific" period seven class everyday with Mr. Nickerson.
If the quotation is a full sentence, attribute and cite the passage. Attribution lets the reader know who is communicating the quotation, and Citation lets the reader know where the quotation came from.
Example- Mr. Nickerson once remarked, "I love River Dance, but I'm like totally into Lord of the Dance, too"(17).
*The phrase Mr. Nickerson once remarked is an example of attribution, and the (17) is an example of citation.
Long Quotations:
If the quotation is more than four typed lines, it needs special treatment:
The entire body of the quotation is set off from the rest of the text by indenting the margins a half-inch.Single-space the quotation.
DO NOT use quotation marks.
Put a colon after the text that proceeds the quotation.
Attribute the quotation the same way as in a short quotation.
Example-
London desires at this point in Call of the Wild to illustrate the new temperament of Buck. As part of the evidence of Buck's determination, London states:
And through it all Buck staggered along at the head of the team as in a nightmare. He pulled when he could; when he could no longer pull, he fell down and remained down till blows from whip or club drove him to his feet again. All the stiffness and gloss had gone out of his beautiful furry coat. The hair hung down, limp and draggled, or matted with dried blood where Hal's club had bruised him (24).
In relating this passage, London demonstrates to perfection the spirit and will of Buck at this particular point in the story.
Changing Quotations:
When you need to change or add additional information to a quotation, you simply enclose brackets [ ] around the selected word or phrase. This is necessary when a writer needs to clarify who is speaking, or when a writer changes the verb tense of a sentence.
Example- Original quotation: "He loves to raise mad cucumber beasts."
Your sentence: The students at MHS understand that "he [Mr. Heller] loves to raise mad cucumber beasts."
*In this example, the writer has altered the quotation to provide more clarity (we now know that it is Mr. Heller who raises these dastardly vegetables).
Partial Quotations:
If a quotation is too long to write, or you want to leave out information, an ellipsis (dot-dot-dot) is your friend.
Example- "And through it all Buck staggered along at the head of the team… It was heartbreaking, only Buck's heart was unbreakable"(24).
*The ellipsis shows that the writer has used two different parts of the longer quotation.
Before the Quotation:
It is important to properly lead into the quotation. You cannot simply place a quotation anywhere in a paper without any context. You want to make your point and then support that point with your opinion and insights.
Example- According to a young Ezra, "Green pants and teal sweaters are simply taboo in the fashion world"(12). This proves that Ezra has been fashion-conscious his entire life.
3. Works Cited: A requirement of most research papers, a works cited page is a great way to organize sources and show what resources you used for your paper. There are a few different ways to organize a works cited page. The most common format (and the one used at MHS) is MLA format. The LMC and Writing Center both have handouts on this subject:
General Guidelines
When you write a research paper, you must indicate where you found the material you borrowed - whether you quote the material or paraphrase it. If you do not cite your sources, you are committing plagiarism. For more information, see the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, available in the LMC and Writing Center.
Format
Begin your works cited on a separate page, after the text of your paper.Center the title "Works Cited" at the top of the page.
Alphabetize entries by the author's last name. If the author's last name is unknown, alphabetize by the first word in the title (other than a, an, or the).
Start each entry flush left. If an entry runs more than one line, indent each subsequent line(s) (use the tab key).
If you are handwriting or typing your works cited on a typewriter, underline the name of the title. If you are using a computer, italicize the title.
If you cannot find some of the information required, cite what is available.
Double space the entire list, both between and within entries.
Continue the list on as many pages as necessary.
BOOKS
A Book by a Single Author
Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Penguin Books, 1980.
A Book by Two or Three Authors
Wise, David, and Thomas B. Ross. The Espionage Establishment. New York: Random House, 1967.
A Book by more than Three Authors
Gilman, Sander, et al. Hysteria beyond Freud. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
A Multi-volume Work or an Anthology
Swartz, Thomas R., and Frank J. Bonello, eds. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Economic Issues, 6th ed. Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group, 1993.
ENCYCLOPEDIAS
"Mitchell, Margaret." The World Book Encyclopedia, 48th ed. 1994.
ARTICLES IN MAGAZINES
Alter, Jonathan. "The Media's Meaty Meal," Newsweek 3 February 1997: 31-33.
CD-ROMS
"Title of Article." Current Biography. CD-ROM. The H. W. Wilson Co., 1996.
PAMPHLETS
Career as an Aerospace-Aircraft Engineer. Chicago: Institute for Research, 1978.
NEWSPAPERS
An Article or Feature Story
Howe, Peter J. "A Miracle at the Produce Counter." Boston Globe. 10 Feb. 1997: A10.
A Letter to the Editor
Kurson, Ken. Letter. New York Times. 8 Jan. 1995, late ed., sec. 13:14.
An Editorial
"Don't Axe Federal Support for Art." Editorial. New York Times. 13 Jan. 1995, late ed: A30.
GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
New York State. Commission on the Adirondacks in the Twenty-First Century. The Adirondack Park in the
Twenty-First Century. Albany: State of New York, 1990.
INTERNET SOURCES
General Format
Author's last name, first name. "Title of Document." Title of Complete Work (if applicable). Version or File
Number (if applicable). Document date or date of last revision (if available and different from access
date). Protocol and address, access path or directories (date of access).
Note: protocol and address of an Internet site should not be split between lines
Online Database (EBSCOhost, SearchBank, Electric Library, Proquest)
Author's last name, first name. "Title of Work." Journal or Publication. Date of original source: Volume, issue,
page numbers. Name of Database. Protocol and address, access path or directories (date of access).
Pelka, Fred. "The Women's Holocaust." Humanist. September, 1992: Volume 52 Issue 5, p5, 6p.
EBSCOhost. http://www.ebscohost.com/cgni-bin/ (14 April 1998).
Internet Sites (WWW, Telnet, FTP, Gopher)
Author's last name, first name (or name of sponsoring agency) . "The Full Title of the Work." Date document was
posted, if available. Protocol and address, access path or directories (date of visit).
Pontius, Joan. "Joan's Witch Directory." http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~jup/witches/ (12 April 1998).
4. Parenthetical Documentation: In addition to citing sources at the end of your paper, it also necessary to cite sources within the paper. Whenever paraphrasing or quoting a source use the following guidelines:
Parenthetical Documentation
According to the Modern Language Association of America in the Fourth Edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,
The list of works cited at the end of your paper plays an important role in your acknowledgment of sources, but the list does not in itself provide sufficiently detailed and precise documentation. You must indicate to your readers not only what works you used in writing the paper but also exactly what you derived from each source and exactly where in the work you found the material. The most practical way to supply this information is to insert a brief parenthetical acknowledgment in your paper wherever you incorporate another's words, facts, or ideas. (Gibaldi 184)
Your parenthetical documentation must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited. Usually the author's name and a page reference are enough to identify the source and the specific location from which you borrowed material.
It may be true that "in the appreciation of medieval art the attitude of the observer is of primary importance" (Robertson 136).
If you include the author's name and/or the name of the text in your sentence, only document the page number(s).
It may be true, as Robertson maintains, that "in the appreciation of medieval art the attitude of the observer is of primary importance" (136).
Remember to use parenthetical documentation for ideas you have taken from your sources, as well as direct quotations.
In his Autobiography, Benjamin Franklin recalls that he prepared a list of thirteen virtues (135-37).
If you need to document two or more sources in a single sentence, do so as follows:
In the late Renaissance, Machiavelli contended that human beings were by nature "ungrateful" and "mutable" (1240), and Montaigne thought them "miserable and puny" (1343).
If your works cited list contains more than one author with the same last name, you must add the first initial, or if the initial is shared too, the full first name.
The first step is to "immerse yourself in the prewriting process called clustering" (G. Rico 27).
OR
The first step is to "immerse yourself in the prewriting process called clustering" (Gabriele Rico 27).
If your works cited list contains more than one book by the same author, add a shortened version of the cited title. For example, if you are writing about Chaim Potok's two novels, My Name is Asher Lev and The Chosen, you can shorten the titles by using key words as below:
The book begins, "My name is Asher Lev, the Asher Lev, about whom you have read in newspaper and magazines" (Potok Asher Lev 9).
The book begins, "For the first fifteen years of our lives, Danny and I lived within five blocks of each other" (Potok Chosen 9).
If a work is by two or three authors, give the last name of each person listed.
(Marquart, Olason, and Sorenson 34)
If a work is by four or more authors, follow the form that you chose to use on your works cited list-either give the first author's last name followed by et al. or give all the last names.
(Gilman et al. 45) OR (Gilman, King, Porter, Rousseau, and Showalter 45)
If the work does not have an author and is listed by title in your works cited, use a shortened version of the title. The full title of the document below is Guidelines for Family Television Viewing.
The document addressed problems associated with "excessive television viewing" (Television Viewing 234).
If the quotation is set off from the text, type a space after the concluding punctuation mark of the quotation and insert the parenthetical reference.
John K. Mahon adds a further insight to our understanding of the War of 1812:
Financing the war was very difficult at the time. Baring Brothers, a banking firm of the enemy country, handled routine accounts for the United States overseas, but the firm would take on no loans. The loans were in the end absorbed by wealthy Americans at great hazard-also, as it turned out, at great profit to them. (385)
